The VUZ category includes
all of Russia's postsecondary educational institutions; in 1995 these
totaled about 500, including forty-two universities. The other two
types of VUZ are the institute and the polytechnic institute.
Institutes, the largest of the three groups, train students in a
specific field such as law, economics, art, agriculture, medicine, or
technology. The polytechnic institutes teach the same range of subjects
but without specialization in a single area. Most universities teach
the arts and pure sciences.
The institute program
consists of two phases. After completing two years of general studies,
a student receives a certificate; he or she then may take an entrance
examination to continue for two more years or terminate the program and
seek a job. Completion of the next two years results in conferral of a
baccalaureate degree. The next level of higher education is specialized
study based on a research program in the area of future professional
activity. This phase lasts at least two years, at the end of which the
individual is designated a specialist in the chosen field. The top
level of higher education is graduate work, which entails a three-year
program of study and research leading to a degree of candidate (kandidat
), then finally to a degree of doctor of sciences (doktor nauk
).
In the post-Soviet era,
the system of higher education has undergone a more drastic
transformation than the primary and secondary systems. Authority has
moved from the center to agencies in local and subnational
jurisdictions. About 14 percent of institutions of higher learning are
located in the twenty-one republics of the federation (see table 13,
Appendix). Under the new system, each VUZ can determine its own
admissions policy and the content of its academic programs. These
institutions also have their own financial resources and statutes of
operation.
Most of Russia's
universities are located in large cities. Moscow State University,
which was founded in 1755 and has about 28,000 students and 8,000
teachers, enjoys the highest reputation. The Russian People's
Friendship University in Moscow has about 6,500 students and 1,500
teachers, and St. Petersburg State University has about 21,000 students
and 2,100 teachers.
The Soviet Union
concentrated its vocational training resources in areas such as space
and military technology. It lagged behind the West in technical and
vocational training in other sectors because of the practice of ending
students' preparation in these areas at the secondary level. In Russia
vocational schools traditionally have had a poor image; only in the
early 1990s was comprehensive vocational education introduced for
postsecondary students. In 1993 some 400 VUZ offered specialized
training in specific vocational areas ranging from engineering and
electricity to agricultural specialties. Some vocational schools have
combined general and vocational curricula, with the goal of giving
specialists a broader educational background. Another trend is the
integration of higher technical education with on-the-job training by
linking educational institutions with enterprises and factories.
In the post-Soviet era,
business education has expanded dramatically because the demand for
competent managers far outstrips the supply. Experts believe that
Russia's business education programs will play an important role in
transforming social attitudes toward the market economy and capitalism
and establishing a new economic infrastructure. The primary goal of the
new programs is to create familiarity with the principles of the market
economy while casting aside Marxist economic ideology. In the first two
years after the Soviet Union dissolved, more than 1,000 business
schools and training centers were established.
Three types of
institution offer business management education: state and private
business schools and private consulting firms. Many in the last
category simply offer high-priced lectures, but some business schools
have developed sophisticated programs. Examples are the International
Business School of Moscow State University, the Graduate School of
International Business of the Academy of the National Economy in
Moscow, and the International Management Institute in St. Petersburg.
Several schools offer full master of business administration (MBA)
degree programs based on Western models. Business schools are funded by
the state and by private enterprise. Competent faculty are at a premium
in this field; many have been trained by Western firms such as IBM.
Education plays a
crucial role in determining social status in Russia. People who leave
school after eight years generally can find only unskilled jobs. Even
those who complete secondary education may rise no higher than skilled
labor or low-level white-collar work. A college or university education
is necessary for most professional and bureaucratic positions and
appears to be highly desirable for a position of political power. For
example, a very high percentage of the members of Russia's parliament
are university graduates.
Access to higher
education is roughly proportionate to the social and financial
situation of an individual's family. Children whose parents have money
and status usually have an advantage in gaining admission to an
institution of higher education. The reasons lie not only with the
parents' possible influence and connections but increasingly with the
better quality of primary and secondary education that has become
available to such children, enhancing their ability to pass difficult
university entrance examinations. Moreover, such families can afford to
hire tutors for their children in preparation for the examinations and
can more readily afford to pay university tuition in case the children
do not receive stipends.
By the mid-1990s, the
new phenomenon of individual commercial success began influencing the
attitude of Russian society toward education and its goals. At the same
time, the last generation of Soviet-educated Russians was finding
itself ill prepared to deal with a new set of conditions for social and
economic survival. In the new order, acquisition of money is much more
important for both self-respect and practical survival, and career
prestige by itself is of relatively less worth than it was in the
Soviet system, where every career label ensured a known level of
comfort. Significantly, in post-Soviet years, the phrase delat' den'gi
(to make money) has passed into common usage in colloquial Russian.
Together with the employment insecurity felt in the 1990s by
well-educated Russians, the new values have dampened the educational
ambitions of many, particularly with regard to higher education.
Although most older Russians resent those who achieve commercial
success in the new "system," the generation now in school shows
increasing interest in advancement in the private sector of the
economy. At the same time, polls show that education ranks ninth among
the most pressing concerns of Russians. Russia has an entrenched, albeit
underfunded, system of socialized medicine. Basic medical care is
available to most of the population free of cost, but its quality is
extremely low by Western standards, and in the mid-1990s the efficiency
of the system continued the decline that had begun before the collapse
of the Soviet system. In the first four post-Soviet years, that decline
was typified by significant increases in infant and maternal mortality
and contagious diseases and by decreases in fertility and life
expectancy.
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